A PROBLEM IN LAND-USE PLANNING ABOUT THE STRIP MINING AND Term Paper

A PROBLEM IN LAND-USE PLANNING ABOUT THE STRIP MINING AND POWER-RELATED USE OF LIGNITE - Term Paper Example With the capability of creating acidic waters, in view of introduction to oxidizing barometrical conditions, it is in this way justifiable with respect to tree huggers being careful. Also, is the ever-present nature of human wellbeing effects and impacts; particularly dependent on their wellsprings of drinking water. It is for the most part pre-assumed that springs and other water frameworks are between associated. Thus, on account of such mining exercises, there is a capability of such fragile frameworks being dirtied. Drinking water (for human utilization just as creature taking care of) would be affected upon. What's more would be the more prominent negative impact on the pre-present bio-decent variety; influencing adversely on the current vegetation. Air contamination would likewise be available, particularly from the residue heaved and squander materials uncovered in such mining forms. In a general sense so is the way that while recovery is conceivable, it is the long-span of ti me that is of concern; further exacerbated by the way that such land is never as ripe and profitable as the mining procedure itself. Extraordinary thinking is fundamental before settling on such a choice, that is probably going to impact a more prominent populace, just as encompassing natural eco-frameworks. Lignite, as a mineral asset, is likewise alluded to as earthy colored coal, a delicate earthy colored sedimentary stone which being ignitable, is normally shaped from peat, which has experienced slow pressure. While considered the most reduced in rank among the petroleum derivative sorts on account of its to some degree low warmth content, it keeps on getting a charge out of extensive consideration given the different territorial territories where it is mined. Mined in Europe and North America, just as Australia and India, as Ghassemi (2001) depicts, lignite is solely used as a non-renewable energy source particularly in different steam-electric force

Preface to Shakespeare free essay sample

â€Å"The Preface is the fair gauge of Shakespeare’s excellencies and deformities by an amazing mind†. (Halliday). Johnson’s Preface to Shakespeare is an exemplary of scholarly analysis in which he is over his political individual, strict and artistic partialities: makes reference to both the benefits and One of the primary greatness of Shakespeare, as Preface appears: â€Å"Shakespeare is over all the authors, at any rate over the advanced journalists, the writer of nature; the artist that holds up to his perusers a dependable mirror if habits and life.† As indicated by Johnson, â€Å"Shakespeare consistently makes nature prevail over accident†. His mix of catastrophe and satire is likewise ever closer regular to life, on the grounds that the blended show approaches closer to life :Mingled dramatization m negative marks of Shakespeare like a genuine pundit; and become legitimate and true in his gauge of Shakespeare. Johnson tests Shakespeare by the reality and experience, by the trial of time, nature and all inclusiveness, his guard to tragicomedy is amazing and still unparalleled; in which he has exceeded expectations his master Dryden. He discovers Shakespeare incredible on the grounds that he holds a mirror to nature. In limited the significance of affection on the aggregate of life, Johnson envisions Shaw. ay pass on all the guidelines of catastrophe or satire can't be denied, on the grounds that it remembers both for its shifts of show and approaches closer than either to the presence of life† Shakespeare was the originator of â€Å"the structure, the character, the language and the shadows of English drama† and â€Å"opens a mine contains cold and diamonds†. â€Å"Addison communicates in the language of artists, and Shakespeare of men†, subsequently, Shakespeare is one of the incredible and the first experts of the language. There are scarcely any constraints of Preface as well: Johnson couldn't comprehend the profundities of Shakespeare’s graceful virtuoso. Nor might he be able to think about the mental nuances of his portrayal, he was similarly hard of hearing to â€Å"the hints of Shakespeare’s verse at its most eminent his analysis of his insightful forces. In the secret of Shakespeare disaster was past the span of his presence of mind. No big surprise at that point on the off chance that he feels that Shakespeare was at his best in comedy†. By the by these deficiencies don't damage the essential benefits of his Preface which is as undying as the plays of Shakespeare and the trial of Shakespeare gave by him are legitimate even today. About the greatness of Shakespeare’s plot, Johnson says, â€Å"our writer’s plots are by and large acquired from novels†, yet because of his legitimacy, â€Å"his plots, regardless of whether recorded or astonishing, are constantly packed with occurrences, by which the consideration of a discourteous people was most effectively gotten than by assumption or argumentation†. Johnson composes, Shakespeare â€Å"knows how he should most please; and whether his training is increasingly pleasing to nature; or whether his model has biased the nation.† He was unable to see â€Å"how truth might be expressed legend or image, how The Tempest and The Winter’s Tale for example, are more than wonderful sentimental pieces; fundamentally, he says of the last that with every one of its absurdities, it is very entertaining†. The impediments of this basic reasonableness are no where conspicuous than in his objection that Shakespeare â€Å"seems to compose with no good purpose†. He neglects to see the shrouded ethics of Shakespeare’s plays; to him just the unequivocally expressed ethics are the ethics, in this manner, the absolute most obvious excellencies of Shakespeare, for instance, his objectivity and his profoundly individualized treatment of his characters, are treated by Johnson as his â€Å"defects†Ã¢â‚¬these deserts are surely not Shakespeare’s, however Johnson’s. Shakespeare was the primary writer whose heartbreaking just as comic plays prevailing with regards to giving the emotional joy suitable to them. He has given us phenomenal comedies â€Å"without work which no work can improve,† so the world lean towards his comedies since they are significant and all the more consistent with nature. In any case, the language of his comic scenes is the language of the reality, neither gross nor refined and henceforth it has not gone out of date. Right off the bat in English show â€Å"Neither the character nor discoursed were yet comprehended, Shakespeare might be genuinely said to have presented them both among us, and in a portion of his more joyful scenes to have conveyed them both to the most extreme height†. â€Å"In my opinion†, finishes up Johnson, â€Å"very not many in the lines were hard to his crowd, and that he uses such articulations as were them normal, however the scarcity if contemporary essayists causes them currently to appear peculiar.† His count of Shakespeare in itself is a great bit of analysis. These flaws he finds are inferable from two causesâ€(a) heedlessness, (b) abundance of vanity. â€Å"The subtleties investigation of the faults†, says Raleigh, â€Å"is fine bit of analysis, and has never been genuinely challenged†. Shakespeare’s obscurities emerge from: 1. the imprudent way of distribution; 2. the moving styles and syntactic permit of Elizabethan English; 3. the utilization of conversational English; 4. the utilization of numerous suggestions, the reference, and so forth., to topical occasions and characters; 5. The fast progression of thoughts which regularly hustles him to a hesitation before the first been completely clarified. Along these lines, huge numbers of Shakespeare’s obscurities have a place either with the age or the necessities of showmanship and to the man. Johnson took a stab at educating and later sorted out a school in Litchfield. His instructive endeavors were not effective, in any case, albeit one of his understudies, David Garrick, later well known as an entertainer, turned into a long lasting companion. Johnson, having quit any pretense of instructing, went to London to attempt the abstract life. In this manner started an extensive stretch of hack composing for the Gentlemans Magazine. He established his own periodical, The Rambler, where he distributed, somewhere in the range of 1750 and 1752, an impressive number of persuasive, savvy expositions on writing, analysis, and good Starting in 1747, while occupied with different sorts of composing and constantly troubled with destitution, Johnson was additionally grinding away on a significant projectâ€compiling a word reference charged by a gathering of book shops. After over eight years in planning, the Dictionary of the English Language showed up in 1755. This astounding work contains around 40,000 sections clarified by distinctive, quirky, despite everything cited definitions and by a remarkable scope of illustrative models. Johnson distributed another periodical, The Idler, somewhere in the range of 1758 and 1760. In 1764 he and the famous English portraitist Sir Joshua Reynolds established the Literary Club; its participation included such illuminating presences as Garrick, the legislator Edmund Burke, the writers Oliver Goldsmith and Richard Brinsley Sheridan, and a youthful Scottish legal advisor, James Boswell. Johnsons last significant work, The Lives of the English Poets, was started in 1778, when he was about 70 years of age, and completedâ€in ten volumesâ€in 1781. The work is an unmistakable mix of memoir and scholarly analysis. Johnsons focuses to recollect in Preface to Shakespeare Shakespeare’s characters are an only portrayal of human instinct as they manage interests and standards which are basic to mankind. They are likewise consistent with the age, sex, calling to which they have a place and consequently the discourse of one can't be placed in the mouth of another. His characters are not misrepresented. In any event, when the office is powerful, the exchange is level with life. Shakespeare’s plays are a storage facility of functional insight and from them can be defined a way of thinking of life. Besides, his plays speak to the various interests and not love alone. In this, his plays reflect life. Shakespeare’s utilization of deplorable parody: Shakespeare has been highly condemned for blending disaster and satire, yet Johnson shields him in this. Johnson says that in blending disaster and satire, Shakespeare has been consistent with nature, in light of the fact that even, in actuality, there is a blending of good and malevolence, bliss and distress, tears and grins and so forth this might be against the traditional guidelines, yet there is constantly an intrigue open from analysis to nature. Besides, appalling parody being closer to life consolidates inside itself the delight and guidance of both disaster and satire. Shakespeare’s utilization of tragicomedy doesn't debilitate the impact of a disaster since it doesn't intrude on the advancement of interests. Actually, Shakespeare realized that delight comprised in assortment. Proceeded with despairing or distress is frequently not satisfying. Shakespeare had the ability to move, regardless of whether to tears or chuckling. Shakespeare’s comic virtuoso: Johnson says that parody came normal to Shakespeare. He appears to create his comic scenes absent a lot of work, and these scenes are sturdy and henceforth their notoriety has not endured with the progression of time. The language of his comic scenes is the language of genuine which is neither gross nor over refined, and thus it has not become out of date. Shakespeare composes catastrophes with incredible appearance of drudge and study, however there is continually something needing in his appalling scenes. His catastrophe is by all accounts expertise, his parody intuition. Johnson’s safeguard of Shakespeare’s utilization of solidarities: Samuel Johnson ((1709-1784) Shakespeare’s narratives are neither catastrophe nor satire and consequently he isn't required to observe old style rules of solidarities. The main solidarity he needs to keep up in his chronicles is the consistency and expectation in his characters and this he does so reliably. In his different works, he has all around kept up the solidarity of activity. His plots have the assortment and intricacy of nature, yet have a start, center and an end, and one occasion is consistently associated with another, and the plot makes continuous headway towards the conclusion. Shakespeare shows no reg

Depression as a Systemic Disease

Depression as a Systemic Disease Depression Diagnosis Print Depression as a Systemic Disease Is Depression a Disease? By Arlin Cuncic Arlin Cuncic, MA, is the author of Therapy in Focus: What to Expect from CBT for Social Anxiety Disorder and 7 Weeks to Reduce Anxiety. Learn about our editorial policy Arlin Cuncic Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Daniel B. Block, MD on January 27, 2020 twitter linkedin Daniel B. Block, MD, is an award-winning, board-certified psychiatrist who operates a private practice in Pennsylvania. Learn about our Medical Review Board Daniel B. Block, MD on January 27, 2020 Depression Overview Types Symptoms Causes & Risk Factors Diagnosis Treatment Coping ADA & Your Rights Depression in Kids Natalie Board / EyeEm /Getty Images A common question as we make advances in our understanding of depression is the following: Is depression a disease? To answer this question, it is helpful to consider both the features of depression as well as the meaning of various ways of conceptualizing depression as a mental disorder, illness, or disease. Depression as a Systemic Illness There is an increasing trend toward evidence supporting the theory of depression as a systemic disease. A systemic illness is one that affects the whole body rather than just a single body part or organ system.  This differs from a localized illness that only affects a single part of the body. Definitions of mental and physical illness may overlap more than researchers previously thoughtâ€"such that the distinction between illness of the mind and illness of the body is blurred. Could it be that depression, an illness that can be treated with psychotherapy, can have an influence on the physical body, and if so, what does that mean? Labeling depression as a disease does not entirely capture the complex nature of the illness. However, it is a move toward understanding it as a disorder of both the mind and body. What Is Clinical Depression? What the Research Says Evidence to support depression as a systemic disease comes in the form of biological changes that are seen in patients with depression. For example, inflammation, neuroendocrine regulation, platelet activity, autonomic nervous system activity, and skeletal homeostasis can all be influenced by depression. In this way, it is possible to see how depression could have a relationship to conditions like heart disease, cancer, and diabetesâ€"the very illnesses to which it is being compared. If depression is related to your immune response, how might that look? A meta-analysis conducted at the University of Granada and published in the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry  examined changes in the bodies of depressed  people based on 29 previously published studies. It was found that depression caused an imbalance in antioxidants and free radicals that can potentially damage the cells of the body, also referred to as oxidative stress.?? After these patients with depression received treatment, their levels of malondialdehyde, a biomarker indicating  oxidative stress  went back down to healthy levels. In addition, it was shown that their levels of zinc and uric acid rose back to normal levels after treatment. Physical Indicators of Depression Research may help to explain why people with depression often complain of physical symptoms like sleeping too much or too little, fatigue, and appetite changes. It is suggested that this may also help to explain why patients with depression tend to have shorter lifespans. We also know that some medical conditions can lead to depressive symptoms, such as hypothyroidism. Depression is not simply a problem of the mind, but rather a complex disorder with both biological and social causes connecting the mind and body. What the Future Holds This type of research also suggests advances in how we diagnose depression, beyond screening from a list of symptoms. In the not too distant future, people may even be able to receive a biomarker test that indicates their level of depression. What's in a Name? Does it matter if we call depression a mental disorder or a systemic disease? Confusion can stem from calling it strictly a disease, along the lines of diabetes, because we know that you cant treat a disease like diabetes with talk therapy.On the other hand, considering depression as strictly a mental disorder doesnt capture the complex nature of the illness and may not motivate people experiencing it to try methods of getting better that dont just involve their mind. Features of Depression According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), depression is diagnosed when five or more of the following symptoms (summarized for the purposes of this article) have been present in the same two-week period and represent a change from your previous functioning. At least one of the symptoms must be either depressed mood or loss of interest or pleasure: Depressed mood most of the day, nearly every dayMarkedly diminished interest or pleasure in all, or almost all, activities most of the day, nearly every daySignificant weight loss or weight gain (without intentional dieting) or decrease or increase in appetite nearly every dayInsomnia or hypersomnia nearly every dayPsychomotor agitation or retardation nearly every dayFatigue or loss of energy nearly every dayFeelings of worthlessness or excessive or inappropriate guilt nearly every dayDiminished ability to think or concentrate, or indecisiveness  nearly every dayRecurrent thoughts of death or recurrent suicidal ideation In addition, the symptoms must cause significant distress or impairment in daily life and not be attributed to another medical condition or the effects of substance use. Considering the above list of symptoms, its troubling to think about depression strictly as a disorder of the mind. Indeed, the many bodily manifestations of depression suggest that there is more going on than we once thought. Its important to remember that the mind and body are both parts of a larger system and that they interact and influence each other. Signs of Depression Illness Definitions Depression has been referred to as a mental disorder, mental illness, and a systemic disease. While there is certainly overlap between these terms, each has a unique definition that we can consider when trying to understand what exactly depression is. A mental disorder can be considered an illness that disrupts your normal mental functioning (just as a physical disorder would be one that disrupts your normal physical functioning). Examples of mental disorders are depression, anxiety disorders, and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).A mental  illness would be considered largely the same thing as a sickness affecting the mind. Examples of mental illness are the same as above, though some might lean toward thinking of schizophrenia or bipolar disorderâ€"illnesses with more obvious symptoms and that are traditionally thought of as being treated with medication first.In contrast, a disease is generally considered a problem of the bodys functioning  that produces symptoms. Examples might include heart disease, diabetes, and cancer. A systemic disease is one that affects the entire body, not just one organ or part. Its easy to see how considering depression a systemic disease along the likes of hypertension or diabetes will require a massive shift in traditional perspectives of mental illness and mental disorders. However, the fact that this is not the traditional way of thinking about depression does not mean that it cannot be accurate. Over time, many of our perceptions of the world change as we gain an appreciation for our past misconceptions. This might also be the case for depression. Treating Depression as a Systemic Illness If depression is considered within the context of a systemic illness, what does this mean in terms of treatment?  Beyond the obvious connection to pharmacological treatments such as antidepressant medication, it suggests that changes that impact the systems of the body may also help to alleviate depression. While mind-focused treatments are important, those that target systems of the body may also be key. For example, treatment approaches that address physical factors such as nutrition, sleep, and exercise can be a useful complement to medical and psychotherapeutic treatments. Taking a more whole-body approach can be an effective approach when treating depression. In many cases, combining psychotherapy, medications, and self-care strategies can be more impactful than simply relying on a single approach alone. Coping With Depression If you are living with depression, it is important to know how to cope with it both in terms of your mind and body. While talk therapy such as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) targets the mental causes of depression, and medication can target chemical imbalances in the body, there are other approaches you can take as well. In general, promoting body and cellular health will be beneficial  if you have depression. Some steps you can take to cope include: Getting regular exerciseSpending time outdoors (in sunlight)Maintaining a regular sleep scheduleEating a healthy diet When you consider depression as a whole-body illness, it makes sense to approach it from multiple angles. Of course, your ability to make these changes will depend on the severity of your depression. The Best Online Resources for Depression A Word From Verywell Most people with depression dont seek help or receive it. They may feel that their depression is a moral failing on their part. In this way, referring to depression as a systemic disease may help to remove some stigma from this complex disorder. Just because depression can be treated with psychological therapy does not mean the physiological ramifications are any less severe. Seek help for your depression symptoms, just as you would any other illness. Severe cases of depression, in particular, are best treated by a mental health professional who can devise a plan that combines multiple components such as medication, talk therapy, and lifestyle changes. Tips for Living With Depression

Should DNA Be Tested In Rape Cases Law Essay - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 7 Words: 2243 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Argumentative essay Did you like this example? My research project will examine if DNA should be tested in earlier rape cases. Before the mid 1990s DNA was not tested a much as it is today in rape cases. Because of the lack of testing, it is possible that many innocent individuals are serving time for a crime they did not commit. This is the reason I feel this project is important to research. No innocent person should have to serve a sentence for a crime. Literature Review Rape is one of the most heinous crimes that can be committed. The word rape can have several different definitions. The one definition that is used by all states is if a man forcibly subjects a woman to sexual intercourse without her consent he has committed rape (uslegal.com, 2008). However, many people are falsely convicted of rape. By using DNA the falsely accused can regain their freedom. Despite the availability of DNA testing there are still people serving a sentence for a rape they did not commit. Bruce Grosss article False Rape Allegations (2008) states that There is no way of knowing the number of defendants who have been convicted of rape on the basis of false allegation. One study found 28 cases in which the defendant had been convicted and served an average of 7 years in prison before being exonerated by DNA evidence. According to Alex Trensniowski s article, Ronald Cotton was wrongly sentenced to two life terms for rape, he was exonerated by DNA evidence in 1995 (2009). James McKinleys article tells of a Houston man that served five years in prison before released after DNA proved he did not sexually assault an 8 year old boy in 2002. Kara Goekes articles states that Ronald Taylor served a 13 of 60 year sentence for rape before DNA SHOULD DNA BE TESTED IN EARLIER RAPE CASES? proved him innocent (2008). Kevin Johnson describes in Cleared by DNA test, but still struggling to be free (2009), that not even DNA washes away the lasting stigma that shadows once-convicted sex offenders who are c leared by genetic testing. From reading these articles I found that there is a desperate need for DNA testing of past rape cases. It is hard to imagine being accused and convicted of a crime you did not commit. That is why I feel DNA needs to be tested in all past rape cases. Discussion Rape is the most serious form of sexual assault in the United States. In all states if a man forcibly subjects a woman to sexual intercourse without her consent he has committed the crime of rape (uslegal.com, 2008). With todays technology DNA can help identify the rapist in a crime. However, Before DNA technology was widely available, individuals were found guilty of rape without proper evidence to convict them. DNA should be tested in earlier rape cases, because many innocent people have spent the majority of their life in prison for a rape that they did not commit. The victim can make a false identification during a line up or the victim could be making false rape allega tions. Mitochondrial DNA can also be used in rape cases. Scientists are able to find victims hypotype, and detect the suspects haplotype (Didier, 2007). One study shows 28 cases in which the defendant had been convicted and served an average of seven years in prison before being exonerated by DNA evidence (Gross, 2009). SHOULD DNA BE TESTED IN EARLIER RAPE CASES? Another study shows nearly 90 percent of the 227 people cleared by DNA evidence since 1989 were convicted of some of the most heinous sex crimes. Not even DNA washes away the lasting stigma that shadows once convicted sex offenders who are cleared by genetic testing and the criminal justice system that wrongly jailed them offer little help, (Johnson, 2008). Sir Matthew Hale stated that rape is an accusation easily to be made and hard to be proved, and harder to be defended by the party accused, tho never so innocent, (Rumney, 2006). The following are cases that prove that DNA can prove innocence in r ape cases. Sexual Assault Cases Jennifer Thompson picked Ronald Cotton as her rapist from a police line up. While in prison Cotton found another inmate bragging that he had raped Jennifer Thompson. Cotton contacted his lawyer to have a DNA test. Cotton was not a match. However the other inmate that was bragging about the rape, his DNA did match. Cotton was released in 1995 and received $105,000 from the state for his suffering (Tresniowski, 2009). Ronald Gene Taylor was tried for a rape and found guilty. He served twelve of the sixty year sentence before being found not guilty. Taylor was a suspect because he lived less than a mile from the crime scene and was brought to participate in a line up. The victim choose Taylor as her rapist, however she also stated that she was unable to see her attacker because it was dark. The Innocence Project began investigating the case in 1998. In 2006 DNA testing was ordered in the case. The new tests found biological material to sample an d proved Taylors innocence, the evidence pointed to another man that would never be tried. Taylor may be able to collect up to $600,000 if SHOULD DNA BE TESTED IN EARLIER RAPE CASES? he sues the police department where the line up took place (Goeke, 2008). Ricardo Rachel! was arrested in 2002 for the assault on a 8 year old boy. The child and another child witness stated that Rachel! lured the boy to an abandoned house by offering money to him for cleaning up trash. The boy was then raped at the abandoned house. DNA evidence was available at the time of the arrest, however it was never processed to be use in the trial. Rachel! was found guilty and served five years in prison, before being released. The original DNA was court ordered to be tested and the test proved Rachel! was not the criminal. Rachel! is entitled to $300,000 in state repartitions (McKinley Jr., 2008). In 1987 a women in an apartment complex reported that she had been raped. She i dentified Marcus Lyon as the rapist. Lyons served three years for the crime. In 2007, Lyons was given his innocence after DNA evidence was tested. Lyons is entitled to $85,0000 for his time served as an innocent man (Smith, 2008). Willie Williams was found guilty in the 1985 rape of a Fulton county, Georgia woman. Williams was convicted on the victims eye witness statement. The DNA and rape kit were not tested before the trial. It was not tested until 2007, twenty-two years after Williams was arrested. The tests showed Williams was not the attacker. The DNA actual!y matched Kenneth Wicker a serial rapist. However, the woman that was attacked refused to testify again, because she stated it would be too hard on her to live through a trial again. Because of this Kenneth Wicker was never tried and walked as a free man (Torpy, 2009). Jerry Miller was convicted ofrape in 1981 and spent 24 years in prison. He finished his sentence before being found inno cent. A year after his parole he was SHOULD DNA BE TESTED IN EARLIER RAPE CASES? proven innocent from DNA testing of the victims clothes against his. Johnny Briscoe was convicted of rape in 1982. Briscoe served 23 years in a Missouri prison. DNA was lifted from a cigarette butt showed it was not Briscoe who committed the crime (Johnson, 2009). Marlon Pendleton spent more than 12 years in prison for a sexual assault that had taken place in 1992. He was set free in 2006 (Mills, 2008). Sadly some people are not proven innocent until after their death. Tim Cole spent thirteen years in prison before suffering a major asthma attack that killed him in 1999. In 2008, DNA testing showed another man by the name Jerry Johnson was guilty of the crime instead of Cole. Johnson even admitted to the crime in writing four years before Coles death. In the letter Johnson stated that he had raped Michele Mallin in 1985 on the Texas Tech campus. At the time the letter was mailed to a police department Cole was already serving a sentence for the crime. The letter was ignored, so Johnson mailed another letter to Coles family, but by this time Cole was already dead (Johnson, 2009). Innocence Projects Luckily there are groups of people who are trying to help the innocent who are wrongfully convicted. One of these groups are titled, The Innocence Project. The Innocence Project is a non-profit legal clinic affiliated with the Benjamin N. Cardozo School of Law at Yeshiva University and created by Barry C. Scheck and Peter J. Neufeld in 1992. The project is dedicated to exonerating wrongfully convicted people through DNA testing. As a clinic, law students handle case work while supervised by a team of attorneys and clinic staff. The Innocence project states that, DNA testing has been a major factor in SHOULD DNA BE TESTED IN EARLIER RAPE CASES? changing the criminal justice system. It has provided scientific pro of that the system convicts and sentences innocent people and that wrongful convictions are not rare events. Most importantly, DNA testing has opened a window into wrongful convictions so that we may study the causes and propose remedies that may minimize the chances that more innocent people are convicted (The Innocence Project, 2009). The first Innocence Project was Centurion Ministries it was founded in 1983 by a minister James McCloskey, a former executive who traded in his corporate career for a Masters of Divinity degree from Princeton University. Centurion Ministries is a nonÃÆ'ƒÂ ¯Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¿Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ½ profit organization whose mission is to free from prison and clear the names of individuals who are completely innocent of crimes for which they have been convicted and imprisoned. Centurion Ministries usually takes on cases of inmates who have been sentenced to life terms or were designated for execution (Innocence Projects in the US, 2009). North Carolina became the first state to create an innocence commission, giving inmates who claim they were wrongly convicted a chance for freedom after their court appeals have failed. The panel has eight members who are empowered to subpoena records and witnesses and can consider new evidence not presented in court. Iffive of the commission members find that a claim of innocence deserves review, the case will be sent to a panel of three state Superior Court judges. Those jurists then would have to decide unanimously that an inmate was actually innocent in order for the conviction to be overturned (Weinstein, 2006). Some may oppose the testing of DNA in older rape cases. One reason could be SHOULD DNA BE TESTED IN EARLIER RAPE CASES? that they believe the testing would question the victims complaint between supporting victims and protecting the rights of the accused. Other may think that testing DNA in older rape cases would cost to much money. However, would it be better for the state to have to pay millions in fees to the defendant that was found not guilty after serving time in prison? Should money really come before a persons life? Some may think the testing will take too much time that could be spent on other current crimes. To solve this problem people need to be hired to work the older cases to insure they were properly processed. The time spent testing DNA does not compare to the time the innocent spent behind bars. A few authors and officials have suggested ways to deter people from falsely accusing rape. One way would be to charge the person who files a false rape allegation with filing a false report to the police. Another way would be to place the false allegation on their permanent record (Raphael,2008). However these steps could also cause real rape victims to be afraid to report the crime, in fear of being falsely charged themselves. Conclusion Ther e is an outstanding amount of evidence that proves DNA should be tested in earlier rape cases. If there is any reason for doubt the evidence should be tested or retested. It is hard to imagine how many innocent people have died in jail as an innocent person. We want a justice system we can trust, not one that the innocent has to fear. SHOULD DNA BE TESTED IN EARLIER RAPE CASES? References Goeke, K (2008). Falsely Accused: The case of Ronald Gene. Forensic Examiner. 17,86. Gross, B (2009). False rape allegations: An assault on justice. Forensic Examiner. 18,66-70. Hatsch, D (2007). A rape case solved by mitochondrial DNA mixture analysis. Journal ofForensic Science. 52, 891-894. Johnson, K (2009, January 28). Cleared by DNA tests, but still struggling to be free. USA Today, p. AI. Johnson, K (2009, February 4). Texas family fights to clear name: Wrongfully convicted man died in prison. USA Today, p. A 3. Mckinley Jr., J. C. (2008, December 13). Man, imprisoned 5 yea rs, is cleared of sexual assault. New York Times, p. A 14. Mills, S (2008, November). The heroes of the wrongfully convicted. Chicago Tribune, p. 2.4. Raphael, J (2008, March) The Duke lacrosse case. Violence Against Women, Vol. 14, Iss.3; p. 370. Retrieved March 02, 2010, from Innocence Projects in the US Web site: https://truthinjustice.orglips.htm. Retrieved March 02, 2010, from https://www.uslegal.coml. Rumney, P(2006,March). False allegations ofrape. Cambridge Law Journal, p.128ÃÆ'ƒÂ ¯Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¿Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ½ 158. Smith, G (2008, December 20). Gov. Rod Blagojevich pardons 22 people. SHOULD DNA BE TESTED IN EARLIER RAPE CASES? McClatchy-Tribune News. The Innocence Project, The Innocence Project. Retrieved March 01, 2010, Web site: https://www.innocenceproject.org Torpy, B (2009, February 1). Final grim twist in 85 rape case. Atlanta Journal, p. AI. Tresniowski, A (2009, March 16). She sent the wrong man to prison. People, 7I(10), 101. Weinst ein, H (2006). North Carolina to weigh claims of innocence. Retrieved March 01,2010, from Truth In Justice Web site: https://truthinjustice.orgINCÃÆ'ƒÂ ¯Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ¿Ãƒâ€šÃ‚ ½commission.htm. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Should DNA Be Tested In Rape Cases Law Essay" essay for you Create order

Historical Stereotypes of Australian Masculinity in the...

Historical Stereotypes of Australian Masculinity in the Film Two Hands and Strictly Balloon â€Å"Film is a powerful player in the construction of national identity. In Australian films, men embody particular masculinities such as rugged practicality and anti-intellectualism, ruthless independence against all odds, and a willingness to die. These masculinities have been embellished and perpetuated in film histories as the ideal held as the standard for imitation† Introduction ============ Since the revival of Australian cinema in early 1970s, Australian films have focused on certain themes of social perceptions and representations of masculinity. We see dominant,†¦show more content†¦Mateship ======== The unique Australian mateship – exclusively male camaderie – pervades all interactions, actively and robustly discouraging those who would be different. Mateship does not acknowledge fear or pain, even when facing death. In Two Hands true mateship is amply depicted. When Jimmy is in trouble, after losing ten thousand dollars, and Pando’s gang wants to kill, Jimmy’s friends (not fearing to commit a crime for mateship sake) help him to repay Pando by robbing a bank together. One of his mates was shot dead by the police. In the bank robbery one of the robbers fell and fainted, an in true spirit of mateship, he is helped by his mate rather than left abandoned. We also see mateship in the relationship between the two kids, although one of them is a boy and the other is a girl (but dressed as a boy to reflect the masculinity stereotype). The two kids look out for each other, when another boy attacks the boy, the ‘girl’ helps her friend and they both get away safely. Also at the end of the story the surviving ‘girl’ avenges the death of ‘her’ friend by killing the gangsters who had earlier run over ‘her’ friend. Also, the garage owner con tacted his mate when a man tried to sell oneShow MoreRelatedManagement Course: Mba−10 General Management215330 Words   |  862 Pagesprofitability as those fixed costs remain firm, therefore requiring different approaches to innovation in management. This is a world where even in established disciplines such as economics some of the founding principles, such as Adam Smith’s â€Å"invisible hand,† are being tested and reworked for the first time in more than 200 years. The traditional basic premise of volume production, which has driven manufacturing for decades—primarily economies of scale—is being challenged by today’s reality. ContinuingRead MoreStephen P. Robbins Timothy A. Judge (2011) Organizational Behaviour 15th Edition New Jersey: Prentice Hall393164 Words   |  1573 Pages1 Computerized Decision Making 194 Case Incident 2 Predictions That Didn’t Quite Pan Out 195 7 Motivation Concepts 201 Defining Motivation 202 Early Theories of Motivation 203 Hierarchy of Needs Theory 203 †¢ Theory X and Theory Y 205 †¢ Two-Factor Theory 205 †¢ McClelland’s Theory of Needs 207 Contemporary Theories of Motivation 208 Self-Determination Theory 208 †¢ Job Engagement 211 †¢ Goal-Setting Theory 212 †¢ Self-Efficacy Theory 215 †¢ Reinforcement Theory 218 †¢ Equity Theory/Organizational

Menu planning Free Essays

Hello aunt, my dear aunt I wish you a quick recovery, welcome to my advice on a heart-healthy diet. I suppose that your weight is between 48-68 kilogram’s, based on your weight and heart ailment I would suggest you avoid food rich in fat and too much polysaccharide. Note that your body needs about 430-610 calories per day also remember to include protein in your diet and fruits rich in vitamin. We will write a custom essay sample on Menu planning or any similar topic only for you Order Now Your favorites break first should start with some fruits that have healing properties, for example apple, water melons which will cater for vitamins in your diet and further more your breakfast   require some proteins and this will force you to include sausages ,milk and some sweet potatoes. During lunchtime, you need to include leguminous protein for example green gram, some beans or lean meat. Remember strong protein food like fatty meat will overload your digestion. Add some vegetables in your lunch meal for example vegetables rich in iron like spinach, kales. Take soft drinks like fruit juice of mangoes, avocado or passion, avoid acidic fruits like oranges and also note that you are not supposed to take any drink with nicotine or strong tea to avoid high blood pressure. Take a sister and after some few minutes or so do some mild exercise. Your snack should have low sugar and carbohydrates. When it comes to your supper bear in mind that you need some bone mallow soup, egg yolk, some spaghetti because this will require boiling and no frying is needed. Add some garlic raw onions, raw cabbages, with this I belief your daily meal should not exceed 510 calories. I hope your supper will be at Paris Hotel where most dishes will suit your diet. In your second day meal schedule simply take less sugary snacks, warm milk or porridge rich in millet, a sausage or liver which will be enough for your breakfast. Have chicken, fish, some black nightshade vegetables and a little apple juice for your lunch. You can take sandwich as your snack after which you should go for some exercise example along Chicago River, Hopes you are feeling now more recuperating. Have a simple supper that will include boiled mutton and some grains and a cup of warm water. I wish you a quick recovery and good bye. Reference: Metro mix (2007) a journal on food diet, retrieved on 3rd august, ava How to cite Menu planning, Essay examples

Langdon Winner, Do Artifacts Have Politics Essay Example

Langdon Winner, Do Artifacts Have Politics Paper DO ARTIFACTS HAVE? POLITICS? [from Winner, L. (1986). The whale and the reactor: a search for limits in an age of high technology. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 19-39. ] No idea is more provocative in controversies about technology and society than the notion that technical things have political qualities. At issue is the claim that the machines, structures, and systems of modern material culture can be accurately judged not only for their contributions to efficiency and productivity and their positive and negative environmental side effects, but also for the ways in which they can embody specific forms of power and authority. Since ideas of this kind are a persistent and troubling presence in discussions about the meaning of technology, they deserve explicit attention. Writing in the early 1960s, Lewis Mumford gave classic statement to one version of the theme, arguing that â€Å"from late neolithic times in the Near East, right down to our own day, two technologies have recurrently existed side by side: one authoritarian, the other democratic, the first system-centered, immensely powerful, but inherently unstable, the other man- centered, relatively weak, but resourceful and durable. ‘ This thesis stands at the heart of Mumford’s studies of the city, architecture, and history of technics, and mirrors concerns voiced earlier in the works of Peter Kropotkin, William Morris, and other nineteenth-century critics of industrialism. During the 1970s, antinuclear and pro-solar energy movements in Europe and the United States adopted a similar notion as the centerpiece of their arguments. According to environmentalist Denis Hayes, â€Å"The increased deployment of nuclear power facilities must lead society toward authoritarianism. We will write a custom essay sample on Langdon Winner, Do Artifacts Have Politics specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Langdon Winner, Do Artifacts Have Politics specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Langdon Winner, Do Artifacts Have Politics specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Indeed, safe reliance upon nuclear power as the principal source of energy may be possible only in a totalitarian state. † Echoing the views of many proponents of appropriate technology and the soft energy path, Hayes contends that â€Å"dispersed solar sources are more compatible than centralized technologies with social equity, freedom and cultural pluralism. † 2 An eagerness to interpret technical artifacts in political language is by no means the exclusive property of critics of large- scale, high-technology systems. A long lineage of boosters has insisted that the biggest and best that science and industry made available were the best guarantees of democracy, freedom, and social justice. The factory system, automobile, telephone, radio, television, space program, and of course nuclear power have all at one time or another been described as democratizing, liberating forces. David Lillienthal’s TVA: Democracy on the March, for example, found this promise in the phosphate fertilizers and electricity that technical progress was bringing to rural Americans during the 1940s. Three decades later Daniel Boorstin’s The Republic of Technology extolled television for â€Å"its power to disband armies, to cashier presidents, to create a whole new democratic world. 4 Scarcely a new invention comes along that someone doesn’t proclaim it as the salvation of a free society. It is no surprise to learn that technical systems of various kinds are deeply interwoven in the conditions of modern politics. The physical arrangements of industrial production, warfare, communications, and the like have fundamentally changed the exercise of power and the experience of citizenship. But to go beyond this obvious fact and to argue that certain technologies in themselves have political properties seems, at first glance, completely mistaken. We all know that people have politics; things do not. To discover either virtues or evils in aggregates of steel, plastic, transistors, integrated circuits, chemicals, and the like seems just plain wrong, a way of mystifying human artifice and of avoiding the true sources, the human sources of freedom and oppression, justice and injustice. Blaming the hardware appears even more foolish than blaming the victims when it comes to judging conditions of public life. Hence, the stern advice commonly given those who flirt with the notion that technical artifacts have political qualities: What matters is not technology itself, but the social or economic system in which it is embedded. This maxim, which in a number of variations is the central premise of a theory that can be called the social determination of technology, has an obvious wisdom. It serves as a needed corrective to those who focus uncritically upon such things as â€Å"the computer and its social impacts† but who fail to look behind technical devices to see the social circumstances of their development, deployment, and use. This view provides an antidote to naive technological determinism–the idea Do Artifacts have Politics? that technology develops as the sole result of an internal dynamic and then, unmediated by any other influence, molds society to fit its patterns. Those who have not recognized the ways in which technologies are shaped by social and economic forces have not gotten very far. But the corrective has its own shortcomings; taken literally, it suggests that technical things do not matter at all. Once one has done the detective work necessary to reveal the social origins– power holders behind a particular instance of technological change–one will have explained everything of importance. This conclusion offers comfort to social scientists. It validates what they had always suspected, namely, that there is nothing distinctive about the study of technology in the first place. Hence, they can return to their standard models of social power– those of interest-group politics, bureaucratic politics, Marxist models of class struggle, and the like–and have everything they need. The social determination of technology is, in this view, essentially no different from the social determination of, say, welfare policy or taxation. There are, however, good reasons to believe that technology is politically significant in its own right, good reasons why the standard models of social science only go so far in accounting for what is most interesting and troublesome about the subject. Much of modern social and political thought contains recurring statements of what can be called a theory of technological politics, an odd mongrel of notions often crossbred with orthodox liberal, conservative, and socialist philosophies. The theory of technological politics draws attention to the momentum of large-scale sociotechnical systems, to the response of modern societies to certain technological imperatives, and to the ways human ends are powerfully transformed as they are adapted to technical means. This perspective offers a novel framework of interpretation and explanation for s ome of the more puzzling patterns that have taken shape in and around the growth of modern material culture. Its starting point is a decision to take technical artifacts seriously. Rather than insist that we immediately reduce everything to the interplay of social forces, the theory of technological politics suggests that we pay attention to the characteristics of technical objects and the meaning of those characteristics. A necessary complement to, rather than a replacement for, theories of the social determination of technology, this approach identifies certain technologies as political phenomena in their own right. It points us back, to Langdon Winner : Page 2 borrow Edmund Husserl’s philosophical injunction, to the things themselves. In what follows I will outline and illustrate two ways in which artifacts can contain political properties. First are instances in which the invention, design, or arrangement of a specific technical device or system becomes a way of settling an issue in the affairs of a particular community. Seen in the proper light, examples of this kind are fairly straightforward and easily under stood. Second are cases of what can be called â€Å"inherently political technologies,† man-made systems that appear to require or to be strongly compatible with particular kinds of political relationships. Arguments about cases of this kind are much more troublesome and closer to the heart of the matter. By the term â€Å"politics† I mean arrangements of power and authority in human associations as well as the activities that take place within those arrangements. For my purposes here, the term â€Å"technology† is understood to mean all of modern practical artifice, but to avoid confusion I prefer to speak of â€Å"technologies† plural, smaller or larger pieces or systems of hardware of a specific kind. 6 My intention is not to settle any of the issues here once and for all, but to indicate their general dimensions and significance. Technical Arrangements and Social Order ANYONE WHO has traveled the highways of America and has gotten used to the normal height of overpasses may well find something a little odd about some of the bridges over the park ways on Long Island, New York. Many of the overpasses are extraordinarily low, having as little as nine feet of clearance at the curb. Even those who happened to notice this structural peculiarity would not be inclined to attach any special meaning to it. In our accustomed way of looking at things such as roads and bridges, we see the details of form as innocuous and seldom give them a second thought. It turns out, however, that some two hundred or so lowhanging overpasses on Long Island are there for a reason. They were deliberately designed and built that way by someone who wanted to achieve a particular social effect. Robert Moses, the master builder of roads, parks, bridges, and other public works of the 1920s to the 1970s in New York, built his overpasses ac cording to specifications that would discourage the presence of buses on his parkways. According to evidence provided by Moses’ biographer, Robert A. Caro, the reasons reflect Moses social class bias Do Artifacts have Politics? and racial prejudice. Automobile-owning whites of â€Å"upper† and â€Å"comfortable middle† classes, as he called them, would be free to use the parkways for recreation and commuting. Poor people and blacks, who normally used public transit, were kept off the roads because the twelve-foot tall buses could not handle the overpasses. One consequence was to limit access of racial minorities and low-income groups to Jones Beach, Moses’ widely acclaimed public park. Moses made doubly sure of this result by vetoing a proposed extension of the Long Island Railroad to Jones Beach. Robert Moses’ life is a fascinating story in recent U. S. olitical history. His dealings with mayors, governors, and presidents; his careful manipulation of legislatures, banks, labor unions, the press, and public opinion could be studied by political scientists for years. But the most important and enduring results of his work are his technologies, the vast engineering projects that give New York much of it s present form. For generations after Moses’ death and the alliances he forged have fallen apart, his public works, especially the highways and bridges he built to favor the use of the automobile over the development of mass transit, will continue to shape that city. Many of his monumental structures of concrete and steel embody a systematic social inequality, a way of engineering relationships among people that, after a time, became just another part of the landscape. As New York planner Lee Koppleman told Caro about the low bridges on Wantagh Parkway, â€Å"The old son of a gun had made sure that buses would never be able to use his goddamned parkways. â€Å"7 Histories of architecture, city planning, and public works contain many examples of physical arrangements with explicit or implicit political purposes. One can point to Baron Haussmann’s broad Parisian thoroughfares, engineered at Louis Napoleon’s direction to prevent any recurrence of street fighting of the kind that took place during the revolution of 1848. Or one can visit any number of grotesque concrete buildings and huge plazas constructed on university campuses in the United States during the late 1960s and early 1970s to defuse student demonstrations. Studies of industrial machines and instruments also turn up interesting political stories, including some that violate our normal expectations about why technological innovations are made in the first place. If we suppose that new technologies are introduced to achieve increased efficiency, the history of technology shows that we will sometimes be Langdon Winner : Page 3 disappointed. Technological change expresses a panoply of human motives, not the least of which is the desire of some to have dominion over others even though it may require an occasional sacrifice of cost savings and some violation of the normal standard of trying to get more from less. One poignant illustration can be found in the history of nineteenth-century industrial mechanization. At Cyrus McCormick’s reaper manufacturing plant in Chicago in the middle 1880s, pneumatic molding machines, a new and largely untested innovation, were added to the foundry at an estimated cost of $500,000. The standard economic interpretation would lead us to expect that this step was taken to modernize the plant and achieve the kind of efficiencies that mechanization brings. But historian Robert Ozanne has put the development in a broader context. At the time, Cyrus McCormick II was engaged in a battle with the National Union of Iron Molders. He saw the addition of the new machines as a way to ‘weed out the bad element among the men,† namely, the skilled workers who had organized the union local in Chicago. 8 The new machines, manned by unskilled laborers, actually produced inferior castings at a higher cost than the earlier process. After three years of use the machines were, in fact, abandoned, but by that time they had served their purpose–the destruction of the union. Thus, the story of these technical developments at the McCormick factory cannot be adequately understood outside the record of workers’ attempts to organize, police repression of the labor movement in Chicago during that period, and the events surrounding the bombing at Haymarket Square. Technological history and U. S. political history were at that moment deeply intertwined. In the examples of Moses’ low bridges and McCormick’s molding machines, one sees the importance of technical arrangements that precede the use of the things in question. It is obvious that technologies can be used in ways that enhance the power, authority, and privilege of some over others, for ex ample, the use of television to sell a candidate. In our accustomed way of thinking technologies are seen as neutral tools that can be used well or poorly, for good, evil, or something in between. But we usually do not stop to inquire whether a given device might have been designed and built in such a way that it produces a set of consequences logically and temporally prior to any of its professed uses. Robert Moses’ bridges, after all, were used to carry automobiles Do Artifacts have Politics? rom one point to another; McCormick’s machines were used to make metal castings; both technologies, however, encompassed purposes far beyond their immediate use. If our moral and political language for evaluating technology includes only categories having to do with tools and uses, if it does not include attention to the meaning of the de signs and arra ngements of our artifacts, then we will be blinded to much that is intellectually and practically crucial. Because the point is most easily understood in the light of particular intentions embodied in physical form, I have so far offered illustrations that seem almost conspiratorial. But to recognize the political dimensions in the shapes of technology does not require that we look for conscious conspiracies or malicious intentions. The organized movement of handicapped people in the United States during the 1970s pointed out the countless ways in which machines, instruments, and structures of common use–buses, buildings, sidewalks, plumbing fixtures, and so forth–made it impossible for many handicapped persons to move freely about, a condition that systematically excluded them from public life. It is safe to say that designs unsuited for the handicapped arose more from long-standing neglect than from anyone’s active intention. But once the issue was brought to public attention, it became evident that justice required a remedy. A whole range of artifacts have been redesigned and rebuilt to accommodate this minority. Indeed, many of the most important examples of technologies that have political consequences are those that transcend the simple categories â€Å"intended† and â€Å"unintended† altogether. These are instances in which the very process of technical development is so thoroughly biased in a particular direction that it regularly produces results heralded as wonderful breakthroughs by some social interests and crushing setbacks by others. In such cases it is neither correct nor insightful to say, â€Å"Someone intended to do somebody else harm. † Rather one must say that the technological deck has been stacked in advance to favor certain social interests and that some people were bound to receive a better hand than others. The mechanical tomato harvester, a remarkable device perfected by researchers at the University of California from the late 1940s to the present offers an illustrative tale. The machine is able to harvest tomatoes in a single pass through a row, cutting the plants from the ground, Langdon Winner : Page 4 shaking the fruit loose, and (in the newest models) sorting the tomatoes electronically into large plastic gondolas that hold up to twenty-five tons of produce headed for canning factories. To accommodate the rough motion of these harvesters in the field, agricultural researchers have bred new varieties of tomatoes that are hardier, sturdier, and less tasty than those previously grown. The harvesters replace the system of handpicking in which crews of farm workers would pass through the fields three or four times, putting ripe tomatoes in lug boxes and saving immature fruit for later harvest. 9 Studies in California indicate that the use of the machine reduces costs by approximately five to seven dollars per ton as compared to hand harvesting. 0 But the benefits are by no means equally divided in the agricultural economy. In fact, the machine in the garden has in this instance been the occasion for a thorough re shaping of social relationships involved in tomato production in rural California. By virtue of their very size and cost of more than $50,000 each, the machines are compatible only with a highly concentrated form of tomato growing. With the introduction of this new method of harvesting, the number of tomato growers declined from approximately 4,000 in the early 1960s to about 600 in 1973, and yet there was a substantial increase in tons of tomatoes produced. By the late 1970s an estimated 32,000 jobs in the tomato industry had been eliminated as a direct consequence of mechanization. 11 Thus, a jump in productivity to the benefit of very large growers has occurred at the sacrifice of other rural agricultural communities. The University of California’s research on and development of agricultural machines such as the tomato harvester eventually became the subject of a lawsuit filed by attorneys for California Rural Legal Assistance, an organization representing a group of farm workers and other interested parties. The suit charged that university officials are spending tax monies on projects that benefit a handful of private interests to the detriment of farm workers, small farmers, consumers, and rural California generally and asks for a court injunction to stop the practice. The university denied these charges, arguing that to accept them â€Å"would require elimination of all research with any potential practical application. † 12 As far as I know, no one argued that the development of the tomato harvester was the result of a plot. Two Do Artifacts have Politics? students of the controversy, William Friedland and Amy Barton, specifically exonerate the original developers of the machine and the hard tomato from any desire to facilitate economic concentration in that industry. 13 What we see here instead is an ongoing social process in which scientific knowledge, technological invention, and corporate profit reinforce each other in deeply entrenched patterns, patterns that bear the unmistakable stamp of political and economic power. Over many decades agricultural research and development in U. S. land-grant colleges and universities has tended to favor the interests of large agribusiness concerns. 14 It is in the face of such subtly ingrained patterns that opponents of innovations such as the tomato harvester are made to seem â€Å"antitechnology† or â€Å"antiprogress. † For the harvester is not merely the symbol of a social order that rewards some while punishing others; it is in a true sense an embodiment of that order. Within a given category of technological change there are, roughly speaking, two kinds of choices that can affect the relative distribution of power, authority, and privilege in a community. Often the crucial decision is a simple â€Å"yes or no† choice–are we going to develop and adopt the thing or not? In recent years many local, national, and international disputes about technology have centered on â€Å"yes or no† judgments about such things as food additives, pesticides, the building of highways, nuclear reactors, dam projects, and proposed high-tech weapons. The fundamental choice about an antiballistic missile or supersonic transport is whether or not the thing is going to join society as a piece of its operating equipment. Reasons given for and against are frequently as important as those concerning the adoption of an important new law. A second range of choices, equally critical in many instances, has to do with specific features in the design or arrangement of a technical system after the decision to go ahead with it has already been made. Even after a utility company wins permission to build a large electric power line, important controversies can remain with respect to the placement of its route and the design of its towers; even after an organization has decided to institute a system of computers, controversies can still arise with regard to the kinds of components, programs, modes of access, and other specific features the system will include. Once the mechanical tomato harvester had been developed in its basic form, a design alteration of critical social significance–the addition of electronic sorters, for Langdon Winner : Page 5 xample–changed the character of the machine’s effects upon the balance of wealth and power in California agriculture. Some of the most interesting research on technology and politics at present focuses upon the attempt to demonstrate in a detailed, concrete fashion how seemingly innocuous design features in mass transit systems, water projects, industrial machinery, a nd other technologies actually mask social choices of profound significance. Historian David Noble has studied two kinds of automated machine tool systems that have different implications for the relative power of management and labor in the industries that might employ them. He has shown that although the basic electronic and mechanical components of the record/playback and numerical control systems are similar, the choice of one design over another has crucial consequences for social struggles on the shop floor. To see the matter solely in terms of cost cutting, efficiency, or the modernization of equipment is to miss a decisive element in the story. 15 From such examples I would offer some general conclusions. These correspond to the interpretation of technologies as â€Å"forms of life† presented in the previous chapter, filling in the explicitly political dimensions of that point of view. The things we call â€Å"technologies† are ways of building order in our world. Many technical devices and systems important in everyday life contain possibilities for many different ways of ordering human activity. Consciously or unconsciously, deliberately or inadvertently, societies choose structures for technologies that influence how people are going to work, communicate, travel, consume, and so forth over a very long time. In the processes by which structuring decisions are made, different people are situated differently and possess unequal degrees of power as well s unequal levels of awareness. By far the greatest latitude of choice exists the very first time a particular instrument, system, or technique is introduced. Because choices tend to become strongly fixed in material equipment, economic investment, and social habit, the original flexibility vanishes for all practical purposes once the initial commitments are made. In that sense technological innovations are sim ilar to legislative acts or political foundings that establish a framework for public order that will endure over many generations. For that reason the same careful attention one would give to the rules, roles, and relationships of politics must also be given to such things as the building of highways, the creation of television networks, and the tailoring of Do Artifacts have Politics? seemingly insignificant features on new machines. The issues that divide or unite people in society are settled not only in the institutions and practices of politics proper, but also, and less obviously, in tangible arrangements of steel and concrete, wires and semiconductors, nuts and bolts. Inherently Political Technologies NONE OF the arguments and examples considered thus far addresses a stronger, more troubling claim often made in writings about technology and society–the belief that some technologies are by their very nature political in a specific way. According to this view, the adoption of a given technical system unavoidably brings with it conditions for human relationships that have a distinctive political cast–for example, centralized or de-centralized, egalitarian or inegalitarian, repressive or liberating. This is ultimately what is at stake in assertions such as those of Lewis Mumford that two traditions of technology, one authoritarian, the other democratic, exist side-by-side in Western history. In all the cases cited above the technologies are relatively flexible in design and arrangement and variable in their effects. Although one can recognize a particular result produced in a particular setting, one can also easily imagine how a roughly similar device or system might have been built or situated with very much different political consequences. The idea we must now examine and evaluate is that certain kinds of technology do not allow such flexibility, and that to choose them is to choose unalterably a particular form of political life. A remarkably forceful statement of one version of this argument appears in Friedrich Engels’ little essay â€Å"On Authority† written in 1872. Answering anarchists who believed that authority is an evil that ought to be abolished altogether, Engels launches into a panegyric for authoritarianism, maintaining, among other things, that strong authority is a necessary condition in modern industry. To advance his case in the strongest possible way, he asks his readers to imagine that the revolution has already occurred. â€Å"Supposing a social revolution dethroned the capitalists, who now exercise their authority over the production and circulation of wealth. Supposing, to adopt entirely the point of view of the antiauthoritarians, that the land and the instruments of labour had become the collective property of the workers who use them. Will authority have disappeared or will it have only changed its form? †16 Langdon Winner : Page 6 His answer draws upon lessons from three sociotechnical systems of his day, cotton-spinning mills, railways, and ships at sea. He observes that on its way to becoming finished thread, cotton moves through a number of different operations at different locations in the factory. The workers perform a wide variety of tasks, from running the steam engine to carrying the products from one room to another. Because these tasks must be coordinated and because the timing of the work is â€Å"fixed by the authority of the steam,† laborers must learn to accept a rigid discipline. They must, according to Engels, work at regular hours and agree to subordinate their individual wills to the persons in charge of factory operations. If they fail to do so, they risk the horrifying possibility that production will come to a grinding halt. Engels pulls no punches. â€Å"The automatic machinery of a big factory,† he writes, â€Å"is much more despotic than the small capitalists who employ workers ever have been. †17 Similar lessons are adduced in Engels’s analysis of the necessary operating conditions for railways and ships at sea. Both re quire the subordination of workers to an â€Å"imperious authority† that sees to it that things run according to plan. Engels finds that far from being an idiosyncrasy of capitalist social organization, relationships of authority and subordination arise â€Å"independently of all social organization, and are imposed upon us together with the material conditions under which we produce and make products circulate. † Again, he intends this to be stern advice to the anarchists who, according to Engels, thought it possible simply to eradicate subordination and superordination at a single stroke. All such schemes are nonsense. The roots of unavoidable authoritarianism are, he argues, deeply implanted in the human involvement with science and technology. â€Å"If man, by dint of his knowledge and inventive genius, has subdued the forces of nature, the latter avenge themselves upon him by subjecting him, insofar as he employs them, to a veritable despotism independent of all social organization. 18 Attempts to justify strong authority on the basis of supposedly necessary conditions of technical practice have an ancient history. A pivotal theme in the Republic is Plato’s quest to borrow the authority of technology and employ it by analogy to but tress his argument in favor of authority in the state. Among the illustrations he chooses, like Engels, is that of a ship on the high seas. Because large sailing vessels by their very nature need to be steered with a firm hand, sailors must yield to their captain’s commands; no reasonable person believes that Do Artifacts have Politics? ships can be run democratically. Plato goes on to suggest that governing a state is rather like being captain of a ship or like practicing medicine as a physician. Much the same conditions that require central rule and decisive action in organized technical activity also create this need in government. In Engels’s argument, and arguments like it, the justification for authority is no longer made by Plato’s classic analogy, but rather directly with reference to technology itself. If the basic case is as compelling as Engels believed it to be, one would expect that as a society adopted increasingly complicated technical systems as its material basis, the prospects for authoritarian ways of life would be greatly enhanced. Central control by knowledgeable people acting at the top of a rigid social hierarchy would seem increasingly prudent. In this respect his stand in â€Å"On Authority† appears to be at variance with Karl Marx’s position in Volume I of Capital. Marx tries to show that increasing mechanization will render obsolete the hierarchical division of labor and the relationships of subordination that, in his view, were necessary during the early stages of modern manufacturing. â€Å"Modern Industry,† he writes, â€Å"sweeps away by technical means the manufacturing division of labor, under which each man is bound hand and foot for life to a single detail operation. At the same time, the capitalistic form of that industry reproduces this same division of labour in a still more monstrous shape; in the factory proper, by converting the workman into a living appendage of the machine. †19 In Marx’s view the conditions that will eventually dissolve the capitalist division of labor and facilitate proletarian revolution are conditions latent in industrial technology itself The differences between Marx’s position in Capital and Engels’s in his essay raise an important question for socialism: What, after all, does modern technology make possible or necessary in political life? The theoretical tension we see here mirrors many troubles in the practice of freedom and authority that had muddied the tracks of socialist revolution. Arguments to the effect that technologies are in some sense inherently political have been advanced in a wide variety of con texts, far too many to summarize here. My reading of such notions, however, reveals there are two basic ways of stating the case. One version claims that the adoption of a given technical system actually requires the creation and maintenance of a particular set of social conditions as the operating environment of that system. Langdon Winner : Page 7 Engels’s position is of this kind. A similar view is offered by a contemporary writer who holds that â€Å"if you accept nuclear power plants, you also accept a techno-scientific industrial-military elite. Without these people in charge, you could not have nuclear power. 20 In this conception some kinds of technology require their social environments to be structured in a particular way in much the same sense that an automobile requires wheels in order to move. The thing could not exist as an effective operating entity unless certain social as well as material conditions were met. The meaning of â€Å"required† here is that of practical (rather than logical) necessity~ Thus, Plato thought it a practical necessity that a ship at sea have one captain an d an unquestionably obedient crew. A second, somewhat weaker, version of the argument holds that a given kind of technology is strongly compatible with, but does not strictly require, social and political relationships of a particular stripe. Many advocates of solar energy have argued that technologies of that variety are more compatible with a democratic, egalitarian society than energy systems based on coal, oil, and nuclear power; at the same time they do not maintain that anything about solar energy requires democracy. Their case is, briefly, that solar energy is decentralizing in both a technical and political sense: technically speaking, it is vastly more reasonable to build solar systems in a disaggregated, widely distributed manner than in large-scale centralized plants; politically speaking, solar energy accommodates the attempts of individuals and local communities to manage their affairs effectively be cause they are dealing with systems that are more accessible, comprehensible, and controllable than huge centralized sources. In this view solar energy is desirable not only for its economic and environmental benefits, but also for the salutary institutions it is likely to permit in other areas of public life. 21 Within both versions of the argument there is a further distinction to be made between conditions that are internal to the workings of a given technical system and those that are external to it. Engels’s thesis concerns internal social relations said to be required within cotton factories and railways, for example; what such relationships mean for the condition of society at large is, for him, a separate question. In contrast, the solar advocate’s belief that solar technologies are compatible with democracy pertains to the way they complement aspects of society removed from the organization of those technologies as such. Do Artifacts have Politics? There are, then, several different directions that arguments of this kind can follow. Are the social conditions predicated said to be required by, or strongly compatible with, the workings of a given technical system? Are those conditions internal to that system or external to it (or both)? Although writings that address such questions are often unclear about what is being asserted, arguments in this general category are an important part of modern political discourse. They enter into many attempts to explain how changes in social life take place in the wake of technological innovation. More important, they are often used to buttress attempts to justify or criticize proposed courses of action involving new technology. By offering istinctly political reasons for or against the adoption of a particular technology, arguments of this kind stand apart from more commonly employed, more easily quantifiable claims about economic costs and benefits, environmental impacts, and possible risks to public health and safety that technical systems may involve. The issue here does not concern how many jobs will be created, how much income generated, how many pollutants added, or how many cancers produced. Rather, the issue has to do with ways in which choices about technology have important consequences for the form and quality of human associations. If we examine social patterns that characterize the environments of technical systems, we find certain devices and systems almost invariably linked to specific ways of organizing power and authority. The important question is: Does this state of affairs derive from an unavoidable social response to intractable properties in the things themselves, or is it instead a pattern imposed independently by a governing body, ruling class, or some other social or cultural institution to further its own purposes? Taking the most obvious example, the atom bomb is an inherently political artifact. As long as it exists at all, its lethal properties demand that it be controlled by a centralized, rigidly hierarchical chain of command closed to all influences that might make its workings unpredictable. The internal social system of the bomb must be authoritarian; there is no other way. The state of affairs stands as a practical necessity independent of any larger political system in which the bomb is embedded, independent of the type of regime or character of its rulers. Indeed, democratic states must try to find ways to ensure that the social structures and mentality that Langdon Winner : Page 8 characterize the management of nuclear weapons do not â€Å"spin off† or â€Å"spill over† into the polity as a whole. The bomb is, of course, a special case. The reasons very rigid relationships of authority are necessary in its immediate presence should be clear to anyone. If, however, we look for other instances in which particular varieties of technology are widely perceived to need the maintenance of a special pattern of power and authority, modern technical history contains a wealth of examples. Alfred D. Chandler in The Visible Hand, a monumental study of modern business enterprise, presents impressive documentation to defend the hypothesis that the construction and day-to day operation of many systems of production, transportation, and communication in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries require the development of particular social form–a large-scale centralized, hierarchical organization administered by highly skilled managers. Typical of Chandler’s reasoning is his analysis of the growth of the railroads. 2 Technology made possible fast, all-weather transportation; but safe, regular, reliable movement of goods and passengers, as well as the continuing maintenance and repair of locomotives, rolling stock, and track, roadbed, stations, roundhouses, and other equipment, required the creation of a sizable administrative organization. It meant the employment of a set of managers to supervise these functional activities over an extensive geographical area; and the appointment of an administrative command of middle and top executives to monitor, evaluate, and coordinate the work of managers responsible for the day-to-day operations. Throughout his book Chandler points to ways in which technologies used in the production and distribution of electricity, chemicals, and a wide range of industrial goods â€Å"demanded† or â€Å"required† this form of human association. â€Å"Hence, the operational requirements of railroads demanded the creation of the first administrative hierarchies in American business. †23 Were there other conceivable ways of organizing these aggregates of people and apparatus? Chandler shows that a previously dominant social form, the small traditional family firm, simply could not handle the task in most cases. Although he does not speculate further, it is clear that he believes there is, to be realistic, very little latitude in the forms of power and authority appropriate within modern sociotechnical systems. The properties of many modern technologies. 24 But the weight of argument and Do Artifacts have Politics? empirical evidence in The Visible Hand suggests that any significant departure from the basic pattern would be, at best, highly unlikely. It may be that other conceivable arrangements of power and authority, for example, those of decentralized, democratic worker self-management, could prove capable of administering factories, refineries, communications systems, and railroads as well as or better than the organizations Chandler describes. Evidence from automobile assembly teams in Sweden and worker- managed plants in Yugoslavia and other countries is often presented to salvage these possibilities. Unable to settle controversies over this matter here, I merely point to what I consider to be their bone of contention. The available evidence tends to show that many large, sophisticated technological systems are in fact highly compatible with centralized, hierarchical managerial control. The interesting question, however, has to do with whether or not this pattern is in any sense a requirement of such systems, a question that is not solely empirical. The matter ultimately rests on our judgments about what steps, if any, are practically necessary in the workings of particular kinds of technology and what, if anything, such measures require of the structure of human associations. Was Plato right in saying that a ship at sea needs steering by a decisive hand and that this could only be accomplished by a single captain and an obedient crew? Is Chandler correct in saying that the properties of large-scale systems require centralized, hierarchical managerial control? To answer such questions, we would have to examine in some detail the moral claims of practical necessity (including those advocated in the doctrines of economics) and weigh them against moral claims of other sorts, for example, the notion that it is good for sailors to participate in the command of a ship or that workers have a right to be involved in making and administering decisions in a factory. It is characteristic of societies based on large, complex technological systems, however, that moral reasons other than those of practical necessity appear increasingly obsolete, â€Å"idealistic,† and irrelevant. Whatever claims one may wish to make on behalf of liberty, justice, or equality can be immediately neutralized when confronted with arguments to the effect, â€Å"Fine, but that’s no way to run a railroad† (or steel mill, or airline, or communication system, and so on). Here we en counter an important quality in modern political discourse and in the way people commonly think about what measures are Langdon Winner : Page 9 justified in response to the possibilities technologies make avail able. In many instances, to say that some technologies are inherently political is to say that certain widely accepted reasons of practical necessity–especially he need to maintain crucial technological systems as smoothly working entities–have tended to eclipse other sorts of moral and political reasoning. One attempt to salvage the autonomy of politics from the bind of practical necessity involves the notion that conditions of human association found in the internal work ings of technological systems can easily be kept separate from the polity as a whole. Americans have long rested content in the belief that arrangements of power and authority inside industrial corporations, public utilities, and the like have little bearing on public institutions, practices, and ideas at large. That â€Å"democracy stops at the factory gates† was taken as a fact of life that had nothing to do with the practice of political freedom. But can the internal politics of technology and the politics of the whole community be so easily separated? A recent study of business leaders in the United States, contemporary exemplars of Chandler’s â€Å"visible hand of management,† found them remark ably impatient with such democratic scruples as â€Å"one man one vote. If democracy doesn’t work for the firm, the most critical institution in all of society, American executives ask, how well can it be expected to work for the government of a nation–particularly when that government attempts to interfere with the achievements of the firm? The authors of the report observe that patterns of authority that work effectively in the corporation be come for businessmen â€Å"the desirable model against which to compare political and economic relationships in the rest of society. 25 While such findings are far from conclusive, they do reflect a sentiment increasingly common in the land: what dilemmas such as the energy crisis require is not a redistribution of wealth or broader public participation but, rather, stronger, centralized public and private management. An especially vivid case in which the operational requirements of a technical system might influence the quality of public life is the debates about the risks of nuclear power. As the supply of uranium for nuclear reactors runs out, a proposed alternative fuel is the plutonium generated as a byproduct in reactor cores. Well-known objections to plutonium recycling focus on its unacceptable economic costs, its risks of environmental contamination, and its dangers in regard Do Artifacts have Politics? to the international proliferation of nuclear weapons. Beyond these concerns, however stands another less widely appreciated set of hazards–those that involve the sacrifice of civil liberties. The widespread use of plutonium as a fuel increases the chance that this toxic substance might be stolen by terrorists, organized crime, or other per sons. This raises the prospect, and not a trivial one, that extraordinary measures would have to be taken to safeguard plutonium from theft and to recover it should the substance be stolen. Workers in the nuclear industry as well as ordinary citizens outside could well become subject to background security checks, covert surveillance, wiretapping, informers, and even emergency measures under martial law–all justified by the need to safeguard plutonium. Russell W. Ayres’s study of the legal ramifications of plutonium recycling concludes: â€Å"With the passage of time and the increase in the quantity of plutonium in existence will come pressure to eliminate the traditional checks the courts and legislatures place on the activities of the executive and to develop a powerful central authority better able to enforce strict safeguards. † He avers that â€Å"once a quantity of plutonium had been stolen, the case for literally turning the country upside down to get it back would be overwhelming. Ayres anticipates and worries about the kinds of thinking that, I have argued, characterize inherently political technologies. It is still true that in a world in which human beings make and maintain artificial systems nothing is â€Å"required† in an absolute sense. Nevertheless, once a course of action is under way, once artifacts such as nuclear power plants have been built and put in operation, the kinds of reasoning that justify the adaptation of social life to technical requirements pop up as spontaneously as flowers in the spring. In Ayres’s words, â€Å"Once recycling begins and the risks of plutonium theft become real rather than hypothetical, the case for governmental infringement of protected rights will seem compelling. †26 After a certain point, those who cannot accept the hard requirements and imperatives will be dismissed as dreamers and fools. *** The two varieties of interpretation I have outlined indicate how artifacts can have political qualities. In the first instance we noticed ways in which specific features in the design or arrangement of a device or system could provide a convenient means of establishing patterns of Langdon Winner : Page 10 power and authority in a given setting. Technologies of this kind have a range of flexibility in the dimensions of their material form. It is precisely because they are flexible that their consequences for society must be understood with reference to the social actors able to influence which de signs and arrangements are chosen. In the second instance we examined ways in which the intractable properties of certain kinds of technology are strongly, perhaps unavoidably, linked to particular institutionalized patterns of power and authority. Here the initial choice about whether or not to adopt something is decisive in regard to its consequences. There are no alternative physical designs or arrangements that would make a significant difference; there are, furthermore, no genuine possibilities for creative intervention by different social systems–capitalist or socialist–that could change the intractability of the entity or significantly alter the quality of its political effects. To know which variety of interpretation is applicable in a given case is often what is at stake in disputes, some of them passionate ones, about the meaning of technology for how we live. I have argued a â€Å"both/and† position here, for it seems to me that both kinds of understanding are applicable in different circumstances. Indeed, it can happen that within a particular complex of technology–a system of communication or transportation, for example–some aspects may be flexible in their possibilities for society, while other aspects may be (for better or worse) completely intractable. The two varieties of interpretation I have examined here can overlap and intersect at many points. These are, of course, issues on which people can disagree. Thus, some proponents of energy from renewable resources now believe they have at last discovered a set of intrinsically democratic, egalitarian, communitarian technologies. In my best estimation, however, the social consequences of building renewable energy systems will surely depend on the specific configurations of both hardware and the social institutions created to bring that energy to us. It may be that we will find ways to turn this silk purse into a sow’s ear. By comparison, advocates of the further development of nuclear power seem to believe that they are working on a rather flexible technology whose adverse social effects can be fixed by changing the design parameters of reactors and nuclear waste disposal systems. For reasons indicated above, I believe them to be dead wrong in that faith. Yes, we may be able to Do Artifacts have Politics? manage some of the â€Å"risks† to public health and safety that nuclear power brings. But as society adapts to the more dangerous and apparently indelible features of nuclear power, what will be the long-range toll in human freedom? My belief that we ought to attend more closely to technical objects themselves is not to say that we can ignore the contexts in which those objects are situated. A ship at sea may well re quire, as Plato and Engels insisted, a single captain and obedient crew. But a ship out of Notes. Langdon Winner : Page 11 service, parked at the dock, needs only a caretaker. To understand which technologies and which con texts are important to us, and why, is an enterprise that must involve both the study of specific technical systems and their history as well as a thorough grasp of the concepts and controversies of political theory. In our times people are often willing to make drastic changes in the way they live to accommodate technological innovation while at the same time resisting similar kinds of changes justified on political grounds. If for no other reason than that, it is important for us to achieve a clearer view of these matters than has been our habit so far. 1. Lewis Mumford, â€Å"Auhoritarian and Democratic Technics,† Technology and Culture 5:1-8, 1964. 2. Denis Hayes, Rays of Hope: The Transition to a Post-Petroleum World (New York: W. W. Norton, 1977), 71, 159. 3. David Lillienthal, T. V. A. : Democracy on the March (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1944), 72-83. 4. Daniel J. Boorstin, The Republic of Technology (New York: Harper and Row, 1978), 7. 5. Langdon Winner, Autonomous Technology: Technics-Out-of-Control as a Theme in Political Thought (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1977). 6. The meaning of â€Å"technology† I employ in this essay does not encompass some of the broader definitions of that concept found in contemporary literature, for example, the notion of â€Å"technique† in the writings of Jacques Ellul. My purposes here are more limited. For a discussion of the difficulties that arise in attempts to define â€Å"technology,† see Autonomous Technology, 8-12. 7. Robert A. Caro, The Power Broker: Robert Moses and the Fall of New York (New York: Random House, 1974), 318, 481, 514, 546, 951-958, 952. 8. Robert Ozanne, A Century of Labor-Management Relations at McCormick and International Harvester (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1967), 20. 9. The early history of the tomato harvester is told in Wayne D. Rasmussen, â€Å"Advances in American Agriculture: The Mechanical Tomato Harvester as a Case Study,† Technology and Culture 9:531-543, 1968. 10. Andrew Schmitz and David Seckler, â€Å"Mechanized Agriculture and Social Welfare: The Case of the Tomato Harvester,† American Journal of Agricultural Economics 52:569-577, 1970. 11. William H. Friedland and Amy Barton, â€Å"Tomato Technology,† Society13:6, September/October 1976. See also William H. Friedland, Social Sleepwalkers: Scientific and Technological Research in California Agriculture, University of California, Davis, Department of Applied Behavioral Sciences, Research Monograph No. 13, 1974. 12. University of California Clip Sheet 54:36, May 1, 1979. Do Artifacts have Politics? 13. â€Å"Tomato Technology. Langdon Winner : Page 12 14. A history and critical analysis of agricultural research in the land-grant colleges is given in James Hightower, Hard Tomatoes, Hard Times (Cambridge: Schenkman, 1978). 15. David F. Noble, Forces of Production: A Social History of Machine Tool Automation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1984). 16. Friedrich Engels, â€Å"On Author ity,† in The Marx-Engels Reader, ed. 2, Robert Tucker (ed. ) (New York: W. W. Norton, 1978), 731. 17. Ibid. 18. Ibid. , 732, 731. 19. Karl Marx, Capital, vol. 1, ed. 3, translated by Samuel Moore and Edward Aveling (New York: Modern Library, 1906), 530. 0. Jerry Mander, Four Arguments for the Elimination of Television (New York: William Morrow, 1978), 44. 21. See, for example, Robert Argue, Barbara Emanuel, and Stephen Graham, The Sun Builders: A People’s Guide to Solar, Wind and Wood Energy in Canada (Toronto: Renewable Energy in Canada, 1978). â€Å"We think decentralization is an implicit component of renewable energy; this implies the de centralization of energy systems, communities and of power. Renewable energy doesn’t require mammoth generation sources of disruptive transmission corridors. Our cities and towns, which have been dependent on centralized energy supplies, may be able to achieve some degree of autonomy, thereby controlling and administering their own energy needs. † (16) 22. Alfred D. Chandler, Jr. , The Visible Hand: The Managerial Revolution in American Business (Cambridge: Belknap, 1977), 244. 23. Ibid. 24. Ibid. , 500. 25. Leonard Silk and David Vogel, Ethics and Profits: The Crisis of Confidence in American Business (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1976), 191. 26. Russell W. Ayres, â€Å"Policing Plutonium: The Civil Liberties Fallout,† Harvard Civil Rights–Civil Liberties Law Review 10 (1975): 443, 413-414, 374.